This article is mainly concerned
with young people’s use of mass media in the Arab world. It presents
findings of previous studies carried out in different Arab countries.
It concludes that there is an urgent need for media education in most
Arab countries.
Introduction
In the old days, childhood was not well
nurtured. Children were seen as savage creatures that must be avoided. No one
cared for children, and they were far down the list of priorities in the family
and human interest. This was the case in ancient times and even during the
middle ages. The child was savage with respect to its behaviour, and education
was crucial in changing this behaviour.
Jean Jack Rousseau was a pioneer who brought
about some changes in this view. [JR1][JR2]
Ever since, the interest and
care devoted to children moved to different sectors. The child who was nothing
now became everything.
This new view of children prevailed around the
world. Attention and care given to children accompanied the introduction of the
cinema at the turn of the nineteenth century. It was natural that the cinema
paid a great deal of attention to children as this was in fashion during that
era. This interest in children and production of children’s movies continued
through World War I, and were followed by the introduction of children’s
programmes on television during the 1950s.
Care for children became very obvious in all
countries of the world around the turn of the twentieth century. In 1989, a
world summit for childhood was held. Starting from that date, most countries
began offering special care for children. The needs of children were to be given
the greatest priority, and attention to children was also obvious in the
universities and academies, where a great deal of study and research was
focussed on children, their general and cultural needs and education.
When we talk about children and media, the most
common media are the cinema and television. In fact, they have more effect on
children than do other media such as print or theatre. Although these two media
contradict each other, and actually compete (television has been accused of
stealing audiences from the cinema, especially in the Arab world [Dehny, 1993,
pp. 38-42]), they complement each other.
This paper contains two main parts: the first
concerns a review of children’s and mass-media research literature in the Arab
world and presents findings from different research projects and studies
conducted in the Arab world. The number of these studies is great; we manage to
cover most of this volume. It was found that most of the reviewed studies were
conducted during the 1990s and were mainly Egyptian, but also came from
Arab Emirates
second level and an overall analysis of the findings of these studies, i.e. a
conclusion and recommendations.
Reviewed studies were classified into four
categories:
–
Children and mass media in general
–
Children and television/cinema
–
Children and print media
–
Children and radio
Children and Mass
Media in the Arab World
This section discusses the findings of studies
related to children and mass media in general.
Findings of a study conducted on Egyptian
children’s use of media, on a sample of 1800 children aged 8 to 15 years and
600 parents (mothers and fathers), have shown that the most important time for
watching television was the peak time from 6 to 9 p.m. (El Hadeedy et al.,
1991). Most children (99%) mentioned that they watch children’s programmes,
which came in first place as the most mentioned programmes ahead of Arab
movies, cartoon films and commercials. Children’s preferred programmes were
cartoons, magic games, stories and tales, children’s series and puppet shows.
Topics preferred were police adventure, religion and social issues.
Children also mentioned that they listen to
radio (45%). The peak listening time was 6 to 10 a.m., and then 3 to 6 p.m.
Preferred radio programmes included music and song [JR3]and religious programmes. Children’s
programmes and news bulletins were also preferred. Preferred radio subjects
included stories and tales. Musical programmes, songs and contests followed
suit.
With respect to parents, it was found that more
than two-thirds of parents watch children’s television programmes, whereas only
8% listen to children’s radio programmes. Parents encourage their children to
watch certain kinds of programmes, such as religious programmes and children’s
programmes rather than adult programmes. Parents mentioned that they prohibit
their children from watching violent programmes. They also mentioned that they
feel that some television commercials cause problems for children as they feel
they cannot afford to buy the advertised products, and that some of these
commercials do not match the ethics and values in society.
A study on Egyptian children’s use of the book,
cinema and theatre was conducted on a sample of 440 children from
(Kandeel, 1997). Variables of age, gender, geographical area, social background
and level of education were taken into consideration. Findings have shown that
49% of the children do not read books and that children who read books
regularly represent only 22%, with the books they read being mainly stories,
adventures and police books. It was found that the social background factor has
an influence on children’s reading of books, as middle and upper-class children
were more frequent readers than working class children were.
With respect to the cinema, findings have shown
that nearly a quarter of the children interviewed (26%) go to cinema. Action
and violent films were the most preferred (95%) by children. More than half the
interviewees (56%) preferred Arab films. Children from working class families
are heavier users of the cinema than are middle and upper-class children.
Children almost never go to the theatre, but do
mention a preference for comedies and puppet shows. Circus and children’s
choral performances were not mentioned at all.
Egyptian children’s use of mass media was the
topic of another study (Kandeel, 1993) conducted on a sample of 260 children
aged 8 to 12 years, boys and girls, from urban areas. The findings show that
more than half the interviewed children read newspapers (57%) and magazines
(62%). There was no significant difference between boys and girls in this
respect. Listeners of radio represented 67% of the sampled children and television
viewers represented 97%, showing that television was the most used medium.
Findings have also shown that children’s
reading of newspapers depends to a great extent on their socioeconomic status
and ability to read and write. Therefore, older children read the newspaper
more than younger children do. Children’s motives for reading the newspaper
included searching for news and current affairs as much as for entertainment.
Children’s preference among newspapers depended
on their availability newspapers and easy access. The use of coloured pictures
and drawings and easy readability, as well as coverage of crime and show
business, were the most mentioned reasons for reading a given newspaper.
Due to the higher prices of magazines compared
to newspapers, it was found that children’s use of magazines depended largely
on the economic situation of their family and their parents’ opinion on the
importance of magazines. Fun and entertainment were the main motives for
reading magazines, and those with pictures and colours are more attractive to
read. Stories and tales also determine children’s preferred magazines.
The peak time for listening to radio was early
morning before school (before 7:00 a.m.). It was also found that listening to
radio was mainly for fun and entertainment. Therefore, music and songs were the
most preferred radio programmes. Listening to news and seeking information were
less important.
Regarding television, entertainment and passing
of leisure time (35%) were the most mentioned motives for viewing television.
Taking a rest from studies (29%) and seeking information (24%) were also among
the motives.
In a Jordanian study on the influence of mass
media on the child, conducted on a sample of Jordanian children (Hindy, 1998),
the aim was to examine the influences of television, radio, the press, cinema
and video on the child. The findings show that the influence of mass media on
the child is accumulative and varies from one medium to another. Television was
found to be the most influential medium on the child, followed by video. Other
media were less effective. The study also found that media have both positive
and negative effects on the child. The family and the school also play certain
roles in determining the child’s use of mass media. Generally speaking, all
children’s materials were not of high quality compared to those directed at
children in Western countries.
Findings have also shown that people working in
the field of production and presentation of materials for children were not
very qualified and also need serious training. Finally, the study found that
there is a great difference between findings of Arab studies and those from
other countries, due to different cultures and environments.
Labib (1994) conducted a study on the child’s
right to adequate media materials. He found that although the amount of books
for children has increased recently, economic circumstances and the high price
of books have made it difficult to buy them. Children’s magazines were also not
very successful. They were merely translations of foreign material and did not
sufficiently inform children about current events, nationally or
internationally.
Spaces devoted to children’s material in the
Egyptian newspapers were very limited, irregular and mainly addressed children
over ten years of age. Material for children under ten years was hard to find.
Egyptian television was an important medium for
children. Television has managed to take listeners away from radio, and also
attracts children to watch their own programmes as well as those of adults. It
was also found that the Egyptian child has free access to television except
during exam time. Egyptian children are exposed to a great deal of imported
foreign materials and commercials in addition to programmes on satellite channels.
This material was found to comprise useful sources of information for children
in different domains of life.
The role of mass media in increasing Egyptian
children’s cultural awareness was the topic of another study (Sabry, 1995). It
aimed at examining the role of mass media in satisfying the child’s cultural
needs. Its findings show that television was the most important medium for
children. Eight percent of its programmes was devoted to children, of which 90%
were foreign programmes, mainly American. It was also found that violence was
very common in children programmes. According to the study, this type of
programme increases children’s tendencies toward actual violence.
In his study on the role of local Egyptian
media in providing the child with information, Hassan (1989) conducted a
content analysis on a sample from television children programmes, newspaper
materials and radio programmes. The study also included interviewing samples of
individuals who work in media who are in charge of children’s programmes and
materials, as well as 400 children aged 9-12 years.
Findings from the study show that all three
media present something for children, weekly or on Sundays. Children
participated in their television programmes (72.2%), print materials (52.2%)
and radio (25%). Religious information was the most common in all three media.
Interviewed children mentioned that they need
more information on topics such as Egyptian history and public figures, as well
as animals and new discoveries. With regard to children’s admiration of their
own programmes and materials, TV programmes came in first place (91.6%), print
materials in newspapers second (89.6%), and finally radio programmes (44.2%).
Findings from interviews with those in charge
of children’s programmes and material have shown that they were all qualified
and university graduates. They all agreed that most of their programmes and
material were directed to children aged 6 to 12 years.
Children and
Television/Cinema
Studies related to children and
television/cinema will be reviewed on the following pages.
El Semary (1995) conducted a study on the
influence of exposure to television on the reading habits of the Egyptian
child. The study was performed on a sample of 300 children, males and females, aged
9-12 years from
(urban area). Its findings show that television affects children’s reading
habits, especially in older children who can read and write. For example, they
may read while watching television or while talking to other members of the
family. Television also influences children’s preferred reading materials. It
was also found that there were other reasons, besides television, that
discourage children from reading, e.g. heavy homework load, lack of parental
encouragement to read and a failure of the school to support their reading.
In a study on children’s perception of the
personality characteristics portrayed in children’s programmes, Kamel (1995)
found that television was an attractive medium in influencing children. Kamel’s
findings show that there were differences between boys and girls with respect
to the influence of television. Girls were more influenced by characteristics
such as friendship sincerity, whereas boys were more influenced by
characteristics of honesty and trust. Boys were also more influenced by
violence and aggressiveness than girls were.
The findings also show that boys were more
influenced by characteristics of cooperation and girls were more influenced by
belongingness. It was also found that boys were influenced with characteristics
of egoism and individualism. Girls were more influenced by characteristics of
"not liking to work" and "staying at home". It was
also found that girls were more likely to appreciate beauty than were boys, who
were more influenced by comedian characteristics.
Finally, the study concluded that television’s
influence on children depends on their interests and attitudes as well as their
socialization.
A study on children’s perception of the
difference between screen personalities and those in real life (El Sayed, 1996)
examined the influences of factors of age, gender and social circumstances. The
study was conducted on a sample of 114 children, boys and girls. The sample was
divided into two groups: pre-school (3-5 years) and primary school (6-8 years)
children. An experimental approach was used, by which data were collected from
children after exposing them to specific children’s programmes. The study’s
findings show that there was a negative relationship between the age variable
and perception of the televised reality. The relationship was also negative
between watching television with others and the perception of televised
reality. The gender variable did not show any influence on the children’s
understanding of televised reality.
Hassan (1995) conducted a study on a cluster
sample of 540 Egyptian children aged 12-15 years from urban and rural areas.
The study was aimed at examining children’s attitudes regarding their
programmes. Its findings show that children were more interested in adventures
and action programmes (fun and entertainment) than other programmes, and were
less interested in educational, scientific and economic programmes. The study
recommended that special programmes for teenagers be introduced.
El Hadeedy (1990) conducted a study on
children’s cinema in the Arab world. The study’s sample was taken from children
aged 8-12 years, boys and girls from 12 Arab countries. It was found that
children’s cinema was available in all the studied countries except two,
available in many places, and are watched in cinemas, schools and public
places. It was also found that
production of children’s films was available in only four countries, i.e.
these four countries, all Arab countries rely mainly on importing children’s
films and programmes (i.e. animated films, puppet shows, documentary films,
experimental films, variety shows and educational films) from Western
countries, especially the
and
With respect to children’s preferences, it was
found that they like Arab films as well as foreign ones. Adventures and action
movies were preferred by boys, while girls preferred social and love stories.
Another study on children’s cinema in the Arab
world (El Abd, 1988) examined the availability of children’s films in 12 Arab
countries, i.e.,
Yemen
The study’s findings show that children’s programmes are shown in all studied
countries except
and
With respect to production, children’s programmes are produced in only four of
the countries (
and
All Arab countries present foreign children films imported from abroad due to
the lack of local production and low cost.
Topics of children’s films were mainly motion
pictures (100%), variety (70%), drama (70%), documentary (70%), experimental
(40%), and educational (30%). Only
and
have participated in international festivals and contests related to children’s
films.
Reda (1994) conducted a study on the impact of
televised violence on children’s behaviour on a sample of 200 parents from
areas. The study’s results show that 64% see television as a major responsible
element in children’s violent behaviour and believe that television is to blame
for the bad language that children use. Parents also mentioned that they are
obliged to interfere in most cases to determine what their children should and
should not see, especially as children watch adult programming in most cases.
The majority of parents (83.5%) also mentioned
that foreign programmes and films were mainly to blame for their children’s
violent behaviour. This situation was even worsened with the introduction of
satellite television. A strong relation was also found between the educational
level and socioeconomic status of parents and their awareness of the danger of
television in increasing their children’s violent behaviour. The same factors
influence parents’ control of what their children watch on television. Parents
from higher classes and with higher educational levels were more likely to
control their children’s use of media in general, and of television in
particular.
The role of animated films in the cognitive
development of children was examined in a study conducted on a sample of
Egyptian children, boys and girls in primary schools aged 7-8 years. It also
included a content analysis of a sample of 19 television series and 14 animated
films (Hassan, 1998). The findings show that screening of children’s programmes
occurred at the wrong time, when children were not at home; programmes were
screened more on schooldays than during weekends and holidays. Therefore,
children’s exposure to these programmes was very limited.
The study recommended that the timing of
children’s programmes must change to allow children to see more of them during
their leisure time and days off from school. Most of the screened programmes
were translated foreign programmes; there is a real need for the production of
pure Arab programmes that take into consideration the interests of the Arab
child.
A content analysis study was conducted to examine
the portrayal of homeless children (Ibrahim, 1994) in a sample of Egyptian
televised programmes from the main three channels, as well as in the press. The
sample period was three months (July-September 1992).
The results show that the portrayal of homeless
children in most television programmes as well as in the press was very weak
and superficial. There was more concentration on models of example children,
children’s festivals and feasts. In the press, homeless children received more
coverage in human-interest stories and accidents. The press coverage of stories
on these children tends to consider lack of education, large number of children
and domestic problems the main reasons.
In a content analysis on a sample of 608 TV
commercials, the role of television advertising in forming children’s values
was examined (Rezk, 1995). It was found that only 8.2% of commercials were
directed at children. These were commercials for products for children (e.g.
diapers, [JR4]ice-cream, sweetsetc.). This may
ultimately teach children consuming habits that sometimes do not match the
standard of living of their family, and this causes the child to ask for things
their parents cannot afford to buy.
It was also obvious that a great deal of the
commercials (65.5%) speak to the upper middle class in society, concentrating
mainly on consumer goods and cosmetics or welfare goods such as expensive cars
and trips. This, according to study findings, may lead to depression in
children who cannot afford these kinds of products. There was also a tendency
to impose on the child a cultural alienation, especially Western style, rather
than belonging. This leads to a conflict between culture of society and other
imported cultural patterns.
A study was conducted on the role of television
in increasing Egyptian children’s environmental awareness (El Keleeny, 1993),
on a sample of 300 children (aged 10 years) in primary schools in
findings show that television plays an important role in spreading awareness
among children with respect to the environment and its problems. However, it
was found that the role of television in creating pro-environment behaviour of
children was absent.
The findings also show that interpersonal
communication plays an important role in increasing children’s environmental
awareness. This may lead to the conclusion that the socialization process has a
role to play in this respect.
A content analysis was performed on a sample of
children’s programmes screened on both the first and second channels of Egyptian
television for five months (August-December 1982) (EL Abd, 1988). The content
analysis was followed by a field study on a sample of children from primary
schools in urban and rural areas.
The findings show that the most common subjects
in these programmes were science (18.4%), art (13.4%) and translated foreign
subjects (10.9%). Social, economic,
military and psychological subjects were less frequent. Personalities in children’s programmes were
mainly male, and information on females was rare. These personalities were
mainly artists (21.9%), religious figures (17.2%), scientists (15.2%) and
politicians (12.4%). Students and sportsmen were less frequent personalities in
children’s programmes. Information on farmers and workers was not available at
all.
With respect to subjects on which information
was presented, these were mainly the men (15.5%), places (13.2%), animals (12%)
and tools/equipment (10.2%). Information was general in 42% of programmes, on
on [JR5]foreign countries in 25.3% and on
other Arab countries in 6.5%.
Sources of information for children’s
programmes were mainly producers (72.1%), children themselves (17.4%) and
finally interviewed guests on the programmes (10.5%). These guests were from
various domains, excluding politics.
With respect to illustrations in children’s
programmes, these included photographs (20.4%), documentaries (16%), models
(8.6%), puppets (8.3%), animated films (4.8%) and hand drawings (4.4%).
Illustrations such as written boards and maps were less frequent.
A study on the role of television drama in
providing children with social values was conducted on a sample of children who
had left education (340 children) (Asran, 1998). The study’s findings show that
all the respondents watch television (81.6% often, 30.9% sometimes and only
7.3% rarely). With respect to children’s preferred programmes, drama came in
first (30.3%), followed by cartoons (15.4%), advertisements (13.8%) and sports
programmes (13%).
It was also found that entertainment and fun
were the most mentioned motives for watching television drama. With respect to
positive values that children learn from television drama, helping the needy
(70.2%), being faithful to one’s parents (20.2%) and sticking to religion (19%)
were the most mentioned. The most mentioned negative values included
underestimation of the importance of education (13.9%), violence (12.4%) and
favouritism (12.1%).
El Abd (1993) conducted a study on children’s
programmes on Omani television, which also included a sample of 500 children
(males and females). All the interviewed children mentioned that they watch
television. More than half (58%) mentioned that they watch television after
completing their homework, 20% before starting their homework and only 6% while
doing their homework.
With respect to the preferred programmes, all
children mentioned animated films and children’s programmes, of which Arab
series (99.4%), songs (98.6%) and Arab films (94.6%) were among the most
preferred. Advertisements (92%), sports (79.8%), variety shows (79.6%) and
religious programmes (75%) were also mentioned.
With regard to parents’ interference in their
children’s exposure to television programmes, it was found that parents
interfered in 32% of the cases. They prohibited their children mainly from
watching some Arab films (81.3%), foreign programmes (68%), some Arab series
and some sports programmes (31.3%). Parents also prohibited their children from
watching news (25%), sports programmes (12.5%) and advertisements (6.3%).
Regarding children’s evaluation of their
programmes, most respondents (84%) mentioned being satisfied with their
programmes and 16% saw them as acceptable. The majority (98%) mentioned that
they learn a great deal from local children’s programmes. In addition to Omani television,
the respondents watch other television channels such as
Egyptian Satellite Channel (ESC), MBC, Saudi and Jordanian television; again,
their most preferred programmes are children’s programmes (90.3%).
El Keleeny (1995) conducted a study on the
negative aspects of new children’s video games and the kind of children who
visit video clubs, on 40 Egyptian children aged 12-15. The findings show that
there were certain kinds of traditional games that children play most of the time.
It was also found that playing video games in video clubs might help to
strengthen relationships among players. However, the video games may cause many
negative effects such as keeping the child away from social life, exposure to
cultural content that varies from that of the society, and associating with
people from different [JR6]social classes, which may lead to
bad habits such as smoking and drug use. The negative effects also included the
fact that most children who go to the video clubs belong to higher social
classes, where parents are busy most of the time. This may lead to a situation
in which these children are more influenced by these games with the absence of
family control. It was also found that there is a correlation between visiting
these clubs and poor performance in school, due to the waste of study time.
Also, video games train children in violence and aggression and take them to a
different world than their own real one.
The findings of a study on children’s
television programmes (El Abd, 1988) from 13 Arab countries (i.e., Egypt, Iraq,
Jordan, Djibouti, the United Arab Emirates, South Yemen, Sudan, Mauritania,
Bahrain, Syria, Somalia, Qatar and Saudi Arabia) show that there were
television programmes for children in all the above countries. Each country
feels that its children’s programmes were sufficient. Children take part in
their own programmes in all countries except
screened as recorded programmes in all countries except
Arab Emirates
for children. Only five countries (
children’s programmes.
It was also found that the sources of
children’s programme production were local (28.7%), foreign (23.8%), Gulf
(21.4%) and Arab (19%). Programmes imported from other countries were animated
films (22.8%), children’s series (19.4%), children’s films (14%), puppet shows
(14%), children’s songs (12.3%), circus programmes and acrobat shows (10.5%) and
full packages of children’s programmes (7%). Most countries participate in
international festivals and contests for children’s programmes, with the
exception of South Yemen,
The study also found that children’s programmes have certain problems in all
countries except
These problems may be due to the lack of financial support and qualified
people, as well as the overuse of foreign programmes. Some countries (
and
have local production, which is run by the respective countries’ governments.
Only two countries (
and
allow private production.
In a study on the planning and production of
children’s programmes on the
Arab Emirates
was found that 70% of the interviewees mentioned that the appearance of
children was important in their own programmes. The findings also show that
presenters of these programmes must be local, male and female, and that the
programmes must also be presented through four artistic types: songs (100%),
animated pictures (70%), stories (30%) and direct talk (30%).
A Saudi study was conducted on Saudi children’s
use of video, on a sample of 163 mothers (Zeenada & Beet El Mal, 1991). The
findings show that 31% of children use video heavily (5-7 times a week), mainly
late in the evening and during the afternoon. Children preferred cartoons
(54.6%), commercials (28.8%), translated films (28.2%) and adventure (16%).
More than one-third of the interviewed mothers
(38%) mentioned using video as a tool in punishing their children; if children
misbehaved, they were not allowed to use the video. Children were also not
allowed to use video in their own rooms. A percentage of 63.8% of the mothers
mentioned buying videotapes for their children upon their request. The study
concluded that the use of video has three main effects on children: social,
cognitive and behavioural.
Another study on children’s programmes (EL
Mishmishy, 1993) on Saudi television included a content analysis of children’s
programmes on the first Saudi TV channel and interviews with the planners and
producers of these programmes. The findings show that television did not
distinguish among different age groups, and that programmes were screened to
children in general and were not very attractive to them.
Programmes were mainly local (73.2%). They were
promotional (31.6%), educational (16.1%), social (9.3%) and religious (2.7%).
Surprisingly, religious programmes were the least screened programmes.
A percentage of 64.3% of the interviewed
planners and producers mentioned that they worked on a part-time basis, with
42.9% not having any type of training and 28.6% not being university graduates.
They also mentioned experiencing a great deal of difficulty in conducting their
work, due to a lack of technicians and supporting qualified staff.
A study was conducted on the role of television
in increasing Egyptian children’s health awareness (Jaffar, 1998). The study’s
sample was 240 children, and relied on the experimental approach. It was found that there was a great
difference between those who watch television and those who do not, with
respect to their information on health affairs. Television was ahead of other
print media with respect to its capacity to increase children’s knowledge about
health matters. It was also found that children from the middle class had more
information on health matters than did those from the working class.
Females had more information on health than
males did.
Lotfy (1992) found, in a study on the influence
of television advertising and Arab serials on the Egyptian child, that children
are greatly negatively affected by television. The study was carried out on
sample of 627 commercials, 400 children (10 to 12 years), and a sample of
parents.
The study found that television was to be
blamed for spreading certain bad behaviour among children. Parents said that
their children exaggerated about the amount of time they spent watching
television. Children from the middle class were more under parental control
than were those from the working class. Children, by contrast, mentioned that
their parents controlled their exposure to television.
It was also found that children were encouraged
by television commercials to buy things they did not need.
The child’s appearance in television
commercials was the topic of a study conducted on a sample of 1284 commercials,
33 programmes, planners and directors, a sample of 100 children [JR7]and a sample of experts and
psychologists (Jaffar, 1991).
It was found that programme directors use both
males and females in their programmes (62%), as the target audiences for their
products and services are both boys and girls. Programme planners and directors
also mentioned that they prefer using older children (6-12 years), and 56% of
commercials use children in this age category. Ninety-two percent of
commercials relied on children from urban areas, and 86.7% of programme
directors use this type of child.
Children and Print
Media
This section reviews the findings of studies
related to children and print media.
El Abd (1988) conducted a study on children’s
print materials in 13 Arab countries, i.e.,
the
collected through a questionnaire sent to those in charge of children’s print
media during the months of July, August and September 1988. The study’s
findings show that special materials for children exist in only nine of the
countries, i.e. Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Jordan, Bahrain, Syria,
Sudan, Somalia, [JR8] Djibouti, Southern Yemen,
Mauritania and Palestine.
Two of the above countries (
daily material for children in the print media. Eight countries (
Arab Emirates
materials for children. One country (
offers material for children once a fortnight, while another (
children.
With respect to the kind of children’s
material, it was found that general information (100%), stories (100%), hobbies
(88.9%), entertainment (88.9%) and news (44.4%) were the most mentioned. It was
found that the children’s participation took on two forms: as correspondents in
their schools or as taking part in editing their own material by submitting
information for publishing.
Regarding children’s newspapers and magazines,
it was found that they exist in ten countries:
the
They are issued by either ordinary news organizations or special organizations
for children. It was also found that publishing houses rely on specialists from
outside the organization (freelancers) to edit and prepare children’s
magazines. A percentage of 42.9 of the magazines are printed in colour, 42.9%
combine colour and black and white, and 14.2% are printed only in black and
white.
El Laban (1995) conducted a content analysis
study on an Egyptian weekly magazine for children (Aladdin Magazine) for two years (1993-94). The study was aimed at
examining the physical and psychological dangers of the use of colour in
children’s magazines. It was shown that the studied magazine was very
successful with respect to the quality of glossy paper and colour used. The use of glossy paper may lead to the
reflection of a great deal of light while reading, which may cause fatigue to
the child’s eyes and increase in children who are not used to reading for long
periods of time. The magazine used high quality printing ink that does not rub
off on children’s fingers while reading.
The study’s findings also show that the magazine was successful in the
use of illustration, especially simple drawings appearing on white backgrounds,
which enhances visibility. The magazine used psychological and religious
appeals to attract the children.
Children’s magazines were the topic of another
study (Amer, 1993), conducted on Samir
Magazine (Amer, 1993). Materials from the magazine were analyzed from June
1989 until December 1991. The sample included 394 scientific topics that were
published in 135 issues.
It was found that a great deal of the
magazine’s content is devoted to scientific topics. The main translated topics
were related to industrial technology, space and planets, science, astronomy
and international scientific news stories. Science-fiction stories formed a
large share of the scientific content of the magazine. Materials related to
contests on scientific topics were also published frequently. Stories related
to computers and robots were also widely covered.
With respect to the format and presentation of
scientific materials, Samir Magazine uses
simple scientific terms to transfer meaning quickly and relies on coloured
pictures and drawings to simplify things. The findings also show that the
magazine does not provide children with any information on Arab scientific life,
ancient or modern. Finally, it was concluded that the magazine lacks a
qualified professional scientific editor who can blend news and science.
In line with the above study, Mabad (1995)
conducted a study on trends in the fictional stories directed at the Egyptian
child on a sample of three monthly children’s magazines specializing in science
fiction, i.e. Nova, The Future File and Seef El Adalah. These are the most important magazines specializing
in this area. A content analysis was performed on the materials published in
the magazines in 1994. It was found that the above magazines imitate Western
magazines to a great extent, and that their format is identical to that of
American magazines with respect to the handbook size, cheap paper and low price.
They always start with a short introductory editorial and contain short stories
accompanied by pictures and drawings, often taken from foreign magazines.
The trend to remove the human race and replace
it with another was the most mentioned trend (79.5%) in the studied magazines.
The control of machines and computers on human beings (19.6%) and the trend to
occupy other planets (10.6%) were also among the trends. Using space for spying
and travelling [JR9] to other plantets were less
mentioned trends.
Findings from a study (Kamel, 1995) on
translated magazines (Mickey) show
that a great deal of material comes in the form of [JR10]drawings. Critics express a great
deal of reservation regarding this kind of drawing, as it may kill children’s
ability to create and imagine. Findings also show that children were less
interested in reading short stories in magazines, and this shows that the
magazines did not present a good press service to the children. [JR11]Pictures and drawings do not present
everything a child needs. The magazine’s content is very weak and superficial,
and is far from the Egyptian cultural, social, economic and political
realities. It also lacks religious, historical, sports and artistic content. It
does not pay any attention to the child, as it does not offer any sign of help
for solving his/her problems. It also does not motivate the child or provide
any help in developing the child’s ability to create or invent. In all, the
magazine does not satisfy the needs of the Egyptian child.
Kaheel (1995) conducted a study on the
influence of magazine advertisements on children in Aladdin Magazine, i.e. the most popular children’s magazine in
during the sample period (August-December 1993) were analyzed. The study’s
findings show that most advertisements were for children’s toys, clothes and
other articles, which are not essential to children. It was also found that
there was a contradiction between the drawings and pictures in the studied
advertisements and the values of Egyptian society. The same contradiction was
found between the values portrayed in the advertisements and values spread
among children in society. This may lead to unwanted consuming habits and the
spread of negative values in children .
Another study was conducted to examine children
attitudes and interests regarding content in children’s magazines, on a sample
of 600 children aged 8-12 years; 450 from
(urban areas) and 150 from rural areas (El Hadeedy et al., 1989). The study’s
findings show that more than half the interviewed children (58.3%) read
magazines. The reading of magazines was more frequent in children from urban
areas (70.1%) than in those from rural areas (20%). With respect to reasons for
not reading magazines, it was found that lack of access to magazines, lack of
time and not liking the content of children’s magazines were the main reasons.
Children also feel that there is a real need to increase the space devoted to
stories in children’s magazines, as this is their most preferred material.
It was also found that children feel there is a
need for a new magazine to meet their needs, and that it should be a weekend
(Thursday) magazine. This shows the importance of timing in children’s
magazines.
What children expect from a new children’s
magazine is fun and entertainment. This shows that children’s magazines should
not be seen as educational or scientific media, but should entertain rather
than teach. It was also found that the price of any new magazine should be
reasonable.
Children’s use of their magazines was the topic
of another study (El Hadeedy, 1997), which aims at examining children’s
motivation for using children’s magazines. The study was carried out on a
purposive sample of 405 Egyptian children aged 9 to 12 years. It found that
children read 14 magazines, the most mentioned being Alaa El Din in first place (22%), followed by Mickey (17.1%) and Majed (11.1%). With respect to access to children’s magazines, they
are bought by a family member (29.2%) or by the children themselves with pocket
money (26.1%). The children’s magazines were also borrowed from friends.
Nearly
half the interviewed children (44%) read alone, 22.2 % with friends, 21.9% with
family members, and 11.6% with a teacher. Preferred material included comedy,
games, competitions, entertainment and general information. Factorial analysis
shows that children read magazines for five factors: information,
entertainment, interaction, social communication and tales.
Children and Radio
On the following pages, findings from studies
on children and radio will be discussed. The number of these studies was very
limited.
Reda (1990) conducted a study on a sample of
200 children aged 10-12 years, selected from schools in rural and urban areas.
The main objective of the study was to examine children’s programmes on local
radio stations and their influence on the formation of children’s concepts and
values. The sampled local station was the Wasat el Delta radio station.
Concepts of the religion, nature and belonging were three important concepts
introduced in 72% of children’s programmes on the station. "The religion
concept" came in first place (24%), followed by "the nature
concept" (22%). The "belonging concept" came in third
(18%).
Children mentioned liking the children’s
programmes aired on the station because they present useful information (68%),
music and songs (55%), and stories and tales (53%). The study recommended that
the time devoted to children’s programmes be increased and more attention be
given to the needs of children in rural areas.
El Abd (1988) conducted a study on children’s
programmes on radio in 13 Arab countries (
Northern Yemen,
were special radio programmes for children in all countries except
With respect to the number of daily children’s programmes, the findings show
that five Arab countries (Northern Yemen,
Yemen
programmes for children, while other countries have a range of five to six
daily.
Aims of the children’s programmes included developing
children’s skills of thinking and information seeking, increasing their
national spirit, entertaining and creating the child’s own world and linking
them to the real world.
According to producers of children’s
programmes, the number of children’s programmes [JR12]was sufficient only in
programmes in most countries (83.3%), with the exception of
planning was done for children’s programmes in six countries, i.e.
and
The planning of children’s programmes relies on some principles such as the
state’s general plans, providing the child with the right values and
information, satisfying the child’s needs, connecting the Arab child with
children in other parts of the world and suitability of programmes for
different age groups. The programmes must also match current events, the
child’s cultural environment and the different seasons of the year.
In most countries, regular evaluation was
performed on children’s programmes. It was also found that children were
corresponding with their programmes with the main motives of broadcasting their
names and participating in the programmes. Budgets for children’s programmes were
not sufficient in
and the
Sources of materials for children’s programmes
were national production (54.5%) and joint Arab production (45.5%). Control
over children’s programmes was found in all countries except
main problems which face the production of children’s programmes included lack
of financial resources, lack of qualified staff and low participation of children
in their programmes. [JR13]
Conclusion and Recommendations
If the rise of mass media goes back to the
beginning of the 20th century, the study of children and media is more recent.
Works in the field of children and mass media rely on the contribution of
scholars from different approaches, i.e. mass communication, psychology, social
psychology and sociology. Due to the importance of mass media and its strong
relationship with human beings, scholars in the fields of education and mass
media are more interested than others in studying the influence of mass media
on the child.
The child’s very limited experience in life
leads to his quick response to stimuli without critical thinking. [JR14]Critics were divided among
themselves with respect to the influence of mass media on the child. While some
see that mass media have positive effects on the child, others see negative
effects.
The above review shows that the number of
studies conducted during the 1990s, especially the mid-1990s, was great
compared to during the 1980s or 1970s. This may be due to the great amount
attention the governments in Arab countries have started to give children. A
great number of children’s organizations have been established under the
supervision of governmental and non-governmental organizations. Academic and
scientific centres for the study of children have also been established across
the Arab world. There has also been a pan-Arab interest in the child, reflected
in the establishment of the Arab Institute for Childhood Studies in
League. In
for example, there was a presidential decree to consider the decade 1989-1999
the childhood decade, and during that time a great deal was done at official
and private levels to improve the quality of the services provided to the
Egyptian child. This may also explain the great care taken to study children
during this decade.
Most of the reviewed studies were related to
children and television, i.e. types of children’s programmes on television and
children’s exposure to these programmes. While some of these studies mainly
analyzed the programmes, others were concerned with children’s exposure to
them, their preferences and the influence of the programmes on the children.
Some of the studies were also related to communicators (programme planners,
producers and directors). Finally, a few examined parents and the extent to
which they influence their children’s use of television. Studies on children
and media in general, print media, radio and other media such as video were
less frequent.
It was also found that social status and
geographic area factors have a great influence on children’s use of mass media.
Those from the upper and middle classes have access to most media, whereas
television was the most used medium for children from a working-class
background. The difference was also clarified in preferences: Middle-class
children prefer variety shows and musical programmes, whereas working-class
children prefer traditional and religious programmes and material. Middle-class
children also used magazines and other print media more than working-class
children did. It was also found that children in urban areas have access to
more media than do children in rural areas, who stick mainly to television as
their main medium.
No attention was given to the problem of poorly
educated and homeless children. Official organizations continue to address
children’s problems, but nothing is ever mentioned about the role media may
play in this issue. This problem is very common in all Arab countries, but
unfortunately very little is done about it.
Arab children are different from those in other
countries, especially Western societies, with respect to their dealing with
media, especially television. In most families from different social milieus,
children are left to watch television without any control or interference from
the family. The danger in this situation increases with the introduction and
spread of satellite television. In most
Arab countries, children know more about satellite programmes than do other
family members, and they use these channels more often than do other family
members.
According to the studies discussed above,
television is the most dominant medium and most children watch television for
different forms of gratification, especially entertainment and fun. Cinema is
also one of the most important media for children. The importance of films is
special in the Arab world because of the spread of illiteracy, which makes
children more prepared to respond to films and motion pictures.
Writers and specialists agree on what is meant
by films for children, distinguishing between different kinds of films as
follows (Shokry, 1995, pp. 9-15):
– Films
in which children are the principal personalities, or whose main theme is the
child
– Films
that parents feel suit the requirements of their children
– Sports
films
–
Animated films that give life and action to inanimate objects such as
drawings, puppets and cartoons, which rely on the persistence of vision (Davies
et al., 1975). This kind of film creates a magic world for children who live in
the world of Tom and Jerry, Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck and Pluto.
–
Documentary films, which children may see in the classroom
–
Educational and cultural films
–
Special films for children
The use of newspapers was affected by the age
factor: Older children (10 years and above) use newspapers more than younger
children do. The same applies to magazines. Children’s use of print media was
also affected by the socioeconomic status of the family. Children in
middle-classes families were more likely to use print media than were
working-class children, who lack sufficient financial resources.
Timing of children’s magazines and prices are
also crucial issues. Publication should be near the weekend. Most children see
magazines as entertaining rather than educational. Therefore, they prefer to
read magazines during their days off from school. This point should also be
reflected in content, which must be light to satisfy children’s needs and expectations.
It was obvious in the literature that there is
a problem with respect to specialized writers for children in the print media.
Specialized writers were very few, and most were not up to standard. This
applies to those whose material covers the very limited space devoted to
children in newspapers, and may also apply to magazines or even children’s
magazines.
The situation was different in radio and
television, where children’s programme presenters were relatively more
experienced. This matter could be seen clearly on Egyptian radio and
television. Egyptian television screens a wide variety of programmes for
children and for different age groups, and the rate of viewing by the target
young audience is high. The rate of listening to children’s programmes on the
radio is also high among the target audiences.
Lack of financial resources was a major problem
for children’s media in most Arab countries, with the exception of the Gulf
countries. Budgets allocated to children’s programmes for radio or television
were far lower than those allocated to other kinds of programmes. The same
applies to the situation of children’s films, which suffer from a lack of
financial and other resources. It is also difficult in most cases to produce
children’s films in which children play principal roles.
Another problem includes the lack of
specialists and staff in the field of production and presentation. At the same
time, those who work in the field of children’s programmes were paid less than
others were. This leads to a situation in which people who produce children’s
material and programmes are viewed as less qualified than those who produce
other programmes. This was common in most Arab countries.
Although a great deal of research on children
and media has been conducted, we still have the same problems shown in the
findings of most studies. These mainly concerned two issues:
·
Do children expose themselves to these programmes and this material, or
are they wasted?
·
Do we, as parents, have the right to select radio and television
programmes and print materials for our children?
·
These are the kinds of questions that need to
be addressed by future research. It is very common at many Arab television
companies to screen programmes at inappropriate times, for example while
children are at school, and this leads to the children not seeing them.
The review of literature and analysis of
findings have shown that researchers in the Arab world have given more
attention to television than all other media. This may be due to the fact that
television has been more influential on children than most other media have.
Studies on children and radio were very few. Studies on children’s use of other
media such as cassette recorders were completely absent, although the use of
the portable cassette recorder has become very popular across the Arab
countries, especially among older children. Studies on use of video and video
games were also rare. We believe that further research needs to be conducted on
these last areas, and hope is place on this future research. There is also a
need to study children’s use of modern media such as mp3 players, chat rooms
and mobile phones.
The above review of findings has also shown
that there is a real need for media education. Most studies have shown that
mass media have a great deal of negative influence on children. These children
need to be educated on how to deal with mass media. Families, especially
mothers, also need to be advised on how to help their children deal with mass
media.
During the 1980s, a number of departments were
established at some Arab universities to qualify teachers for “educational
media”, but not “media education”. In other words, these departments were
concerned mainly with the media used at schools generally or in the educational
process.
At the same time, beginning in the early 1990s,
in most Arab countries schools were required by law to have “Multi-Media
Laboratories”. These are mainly computer laboratories, and most have access to
the Internet. They are intended for use by children at schools for the sake of
the educational process. These laboratories are more used in private schools
than governmental schools. [JR15]
Children use them mainly to go on line and work on their school
projects. Media education at schools has been narrowed to the level of media
use in the educational process.
Before 2002, there were no real workshops or
conferences on media education. The first workshops were organized by UNESCO in
and
in 2002 [JR16].
As of today, the situation of media education
has witnessed slight progress, which can be seen in the number of studies
(especially PhD studies) being conducted on media education. This trend is very
recent.
In sum, there is thus an urgent need for some
kind of coordination between different organizations such as educational and
mass media organizations to conduct joint research and work together. This will
help, to a great extent, to improve the conditions of children’s use of media.
We also believe that there is a real need to conduct cross-cultural studies
that can compare, for instance, the situation of children’s use of media in the
Arab world with that in other countries.
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[JR3]Is
this the title of a programme? If so, maybe “The Holy Koran” (note
capitalization of all words).
[JR7]This
means that these are children belonging to PARENTS who take part in TV
commercials. Should it instead be “..100 children who had taken part in TV
commercials”?
[JR9]isn’t
this the same as “occupying other planets” (which is mentioned in the previous
sentence)?
[JR11]Do
you mean that “there is a lack of short stories in the magazine, demonstrated
by its failure to present a fully comprehensive press service”? Or that “there
is a lack of interest in short stories, shown in the magazine’s failure to
present a fully…”?
[JR13]check
here that my changes are right – as these are problems I tried to express what
would be a problem with each issue named.
[JR16]I’m
assuming the
followed (instead of preceded) the first workshop in
– otherwise, the
one would have been the first.
Prof. Dr.
Samy Tayie
(Professor,
& President of the
Association)